DISCLAIMER AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Water Research Foundation (WRF) is the leading research organization advancing the science of all water to meet the evolving needs of its subscribers and the water sector. WRF is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit, educational organization that funds, manages, and publishes research on the technology, operation, and management of drinking water, wastewater, reuse, and stormwater systems—all in pursuit of ensuring water quality and improving water services to the public.

For more information, contact:

The Water Research Foundation

1199 North Fairfax Street, Suite 900 6666 West Quincy Avenue

Alexandria, VA 22314-1445 Denver, Colorado 80235-3098 www.waterrf.org

P 571-384-2100 P 303-347-6100 info@waterrf.org

©Copyright 2024 by The Water Research Foundation. All rights reserved. Permission to copy must be obtained from The Water Research Foundation. WRF Project Number: 5141

This material was prepared by the organization(s) named below as an account of work sponsored by The Water Research Foundation. Neither The Water Research Foundation, members of The Water Research Foundation, theorganization(s) named below, nor any person acting on their behalf: (a) makes any warranty, express or implied, with respect to the use of any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this material or that such use may not infringe on privately owned rights; or (b) assumes any liabilities with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use of, any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this material. Prepared by University of Michigan, Northwestern University, Hampton Roads Sanitation District, Black & Veatch, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, DC Water, Metro Water Recovery, Oregon State University, and Université Laval. This material was reviewed by a panel of independent experts selected by The Water Research Foundation. Mention of trade names or commercial products or services does not constitute endorsement or recommendations for use. Similarly, omission of products or trade names indicates nothing concerning The Water Research Foundation’s positions regarding product effectiveness or applicability.

This material is based upon work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) under the Advanced Technology Office, Award Number DE-EE0009508. This material was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof. This material has been authored in part by UT-Battelle, LLC, under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with the US Department of Energy (DOE). The publisher acknowledges the US government license to provide public access under the DOE Public Access Plan (http://energy.gov/downloads/doe-public-access-plan).

Research Team

Principal Investigators:

Jeff Moeller, PE (PI) — The Water Research Foundation

Haydee De Clippeleir, PhD (Co-PI) — DC Water

Branko Kerkez, PhD (Co-PI) — University of Michigan

Stephanie Klaus, PhD, PE (Co-PI) — Hampton Roads Sanitation District (HRSD)

Nancy Love, PhD, PE, BCEE, F.WEF, F.IWA, F.AEESP (Co-PI) — University of Michigan

Kate Newhart, PhD, EIT, CWP (Co-PI) — Oregon State University

George Wells, PhD (Co-PI) — Northwestern University

Project Team:

Ahmed AlSayed, PhD, EIT — Northwestern University

Bishav Bhattarai — University of Utah (Previous)

Charles Bott, PhD, PE, BCEE — HRSD

Chris deBarbadillo, PE — Black & Veatch

Alexandria Gagnon, PE — HRSD

Josh Goldman, PE, PhD — Metro Water Recovery

Emily Kin — Northwestern University

Gina Kittleson — University of Michigan

Joe Lybik — University of Michigan

Rudy Maltos, PhD — Metro Water Recovery

Nam Ngo, PhD — DC Water

Han Nguyen — DC Water (Previous)

Leah Pifer — Black & Veatch (Previously with University of Michigan)

Brian Schoener, PhD, PE, Certified Data Analyst — Black & Veatch

Andrew R. Shaw, PhD, PE, BCEE, ENV SP — Black & Veatch

Jeff Sparks, PE — HRSD

Hau Truong — DC Water (previous)

Peter Vanrolleghem, PhD — Université Laval

Kris Villez, PhD — Oak Ridge National Laboratory

WRF Project Subcommittees

Project Advisory Committee:

Katya Bilyk, PE — Hazen & Sawyer

Robert Hill, PhD — San Jacinto River Authority (Retired)

Pusker Regmi, PhD, PE, BCEE — Brown and Caldwell

Utility Advisory Committee:

Erika Bailey, PE — City of Raleigh Public Utilities

Antonio Ho, PE — New York City Department of Environmental Protection

Ting Lu, PhD, PE — Clean Water Services

Samantha MacBride, PhD — New York City Department of Environmental Protection (Retired)

Christopher Marks, PE, CWP — City of Boulder

John Norton, PhD, PE — Great Lakes Water Authority

Amanda Roa, PE — Delta Diablo

Peter Schauer, PE — Clean Water Services

Cole Sigmon, PE — City of Boulder

Muriel Steele, PhD, PE — Charlotte Water

Theresa Tam — New York City Department of Environmental Protection

Bart Weiss — Hillsborough County Public Utilities

Heng Zhang, PhD — Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago (MWRDGC)

WRF Staff

Jeff Moeller, PE (Research Unit Leader)